Overview

The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE), comprising the Slave (1206–1290 CE), Khalji (1290–1320 CE), Tughlaq (1320–1414 CE), Sayyid (1414–1451 CE), and Lodi (1451–1526 CE) dynasties, established a centralized Islamic administration in northern India, blending Persian, Turkish, and Indian elements. Its administrative system evolved from the Mamluk period’s rudimentary structure to a sophisticated framework under the Khaljis and Tughlaqs, with later adjustments by the Sayyids and Lodis. Key features included the iqta system, centralized revenue collection, a standing army, and Sharia-based judiciary, adapted to India’s diverse socio-cultural context.

For UPSC, this is a core topic in Medieval Indian History (Prelims) and Governance/Culture (Mains GS Paper I).

For BPSC, the Sultanate’s administration is relevant for its impact on Bihar, a key province integrated through iqtas and Sufi influence.

---

1. Central Administration

• Sultan:
  • Supreme authority, considered Zill-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God), blending Persian divine kingship with Islamic caliphal legitimacy.
  • Roles: Military commander, lawgiver, and chief judge; issued firmans (royal decrees).
  • Key Dynasties’ Approach:
    • Slave: Iltutmish (1211–1236 CE) gained Abbasid Caliph’s recognition (1231 CE).
    • Khalji: Alauddin (1296–1316 CE) centralized power, curbed nobles.
    • Tughlaq: Firoz Shah (1351–1388 CE) enforced Sharia strictly.
    • Lodi: Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517 CE) balanced Afghan tribal loyalty with centralized rule.
• Council of Ministers (Majlis-i-Khalwat):
  • Advised Sultan, included nobles (umara) and officials.
  • Key Departments:
    • Diwan-i-wizarat: Finance and revenue, headed by wazir (prime minister).
      • Managed treasury (bait-ul-mal), revenue collection, and audits.
    • Diwan-i-arz: Military, headed by ariz-i-mamalik.
      • Oversaw recruitment, salaries, and equipment; formalized by Alauddin Khalji.
    • Diwan-i-insha: Correspondence, headed by dabir-i-khas.
      • Drafted firmans, maintained records.
    • Diwan-i-risalat: Religious affairs and foreign relations, headed by sadr-us-sudur.
      • Managed grants (inams, waqfs) and jizya collection.
    • Special Departments:
      • Diwan-i-amir kohi (Muhammad bin Tughlaq): Agriculture, failed experiment.
      • Diwan-i-khairat (Firoz Shah Tughlaq): Charity, welfare.
• Nobles (Umara):
  • Turkish (Slave, Khalji), Afghan (Lodi), or Indian Muslims; Chahalgani (40 nobles under Iltutmish) influential but later curbed (Alauddin, Balban).
  • Held iqtas (land grants) or served as governors.
• Bihar Connection:
  • Bihar’s governors reported to diwan-i-wizarat for revenue and diwan-i-arz for military contributions.
  • Sadr-us-sudur oversaw Sufi grants in Bihar (e.g., Maner Sharif).

Details to Memorize:

• Sultan: Zill-i-Ilahi, firmans.
• Departments: Diwan-i-wizarat (wazir), diwan-i-arz (ariz), diwan-i-insha, diwan-i-risalat.
• Nobles: Chahalgani (Slave), curbed by Alauddin.
• Bihar: Revenue, military, Sufi grants.

---

2. Provincial Administration

• Structure:
  • Divided into wilayats (provinces), shiqs (districts), and parganas (sub-districts).
  • Governors (wali, muqti, or amir) managed provinces, responsible for revenue, law, and military.
• Iqta System:
  • Land grants (iqtas) assigned to nobles (iqtadars) for military service and revenue collection.
  • Types:
    • Large iqtas: Provincial governorships (e.g., Bihar, Bengal).
    • Small iqtas: Supported soldiers or officials.
  • Evolution:
    • Slave: Iltutmish formalized iqta for loyalty (e.g., Bihar under Lakhnauti).
    • Khalji: Alauddin tightened control, audited iqtadars to prevent autonomy.
    • Tughlaq: Muhammad expanded iqtas; Firoz made them hereditary, weakening central authority.
    • Lodi: Bahlol and Sikandar Lodi re-centralized, but Afghan tribalism persisted.
  • Revenue from iqtas remitted to Delhi after deducting expenses (khidmat).
• Local Officials:
  • Shiqdar: District officer, maintained law and order.
  • Amil: Revenue collector at pargana level.
  • Muqaddam: Village headman, liaised with state.
• Bihar Connection:
  • Bihar as a major iqta (often with Bengal, e.g., Lakhnauti).
  • Governors (e.g., Bakhtiyar Khalji’s successors) managed Bihar’s revenue and troops.
  • Jaunpur (Tughlaq, 1359 CE) later influenced Bihar’s administration.

Details to Memorize:

• Structure: Wilayats, shiqs, parganas.
• Iqta: Iltutmish (formalized), Alauddin (audited), Firoz (hereditary).
• Officials: Wali, shiqdar, amil, muqaddam.
• Bihar: Iqta (Lakhnauti), Jaunpur.

---

3. Revenue System

• Sources:
  • Kharaj: Land tax, main revenue source (20–50% of produce).
    • Slave: Iltutmish standardized.
    • Khalji: Alauddin raised to 50% in Doab, measured land (masahat).
    • Tughlaq: Muhammad’s high kharaj caused revolts; Firoz reduced, based on Sharia.
  • Jizya: Poll tax on non-Muslims, varied enforcement.
    • Slave: Introduced but not strict.
    • Tughlaq: Firoz enforced on Brahmins, alienated Hindus.
  • Zakat: Religious tax on Muslims (2.5% of wealth).
  • Khums: 1/5th of war booty, per Islamic law.
  • Other Taxes:
    • Ghari (house), charai (pasturage): Imposed by Alauddin, abolished by Firoz.
    • Trade duties, irrigation cess (haq-i-sharb).
• Collection:
  • Direct by state officials (amil) or through iqtadars.
  • Village headmen (muqaddams, khuts) assisted but curbed by Alauddin.
  • Land surveys (masahat): Alauddin and Muhammad, often resisted.
• Grants:
  • Brahmadeya/inams: To scholars, Sufis.
  • Waqf: For mosques, madrasas.
  • Madad-i-maash: Tax-free land for religious institutions (Firoz).
• Innovations:
  • Muhammad bin Tughlaq: Token currency (1329–1332 CE, bronze for silver tanka), failed due to counterfeiting.
  • Firoz Shah: Canals (e.g., Yamuna to Hissar), boosted agriculture.
• Bihar Connection:
  • Bihar’s fertile lands contributed significant kharaj.
  • Firoz’s canals and madad-i-maash supported Bihar’s Sufi centers (e.g., Maner Sharif).

Details to Memorize:

• Taxes: Kharaj (50% Alauddin), jizya (Firoz), zakat, khums.
• Collection: Amil, muqaddam, masahat.
• Grants: Waqf, madad-i-maash.
• Innovations: Token currency, canals.
• Bihar: Kharaj, Sufi grants.

---

4. Military Administration

• Structure:
  • Centralized army: Cavalry (Turkish horse archers), infantry, elephants.
  • Maintained by treasury and iqta revenues.
• Key Features:
  • Standing Army:
    • Slave: Iltutmish organized; Balban strengthened.
    • Khalji: Alauddin expanded (~300,000 troops), paid in cash.
    • Tughlaq: Muhammad maintained large army; Firoz relied on iqtadars.
  • Reforms:
    • Alauddin: Dagh (horse branding), chehra (soldier records), huliya (descriptive rolls).
    • Balban: Created diwan-i-arz (military department).
  • Forts: Delhi (Siri, Tughlaqabad), Chittor, Lahore; defended against Mongols.
  • Navy: Limited, used for coastal campaigns (e.g., Gujarat).
• Recruitment:
  • Turkish and Afghan elites, Indian slaves (bandagan), and mercenaries.
  • Hindus included as warriors (e.g., Rajputs under Alauddin).
• Bihar Connection:
  • Bihar supplied troops for campaigns (e.g., Bengal, Deccan).
  • Forts in Bihar (e.g., Rohtas) strengthened under Sultanate governors.

Details to Memorize:

• Army: Cavalry, standing army.
• Reforms: Dagh, chehra (Alauddin), diwan-i-arz (Balban).
• Forts: Siri, Tughlaqabad.
• Bihar: Troop supply, forts.

---

5. Judicial System

• Basis:
  • Sharia (Islamic law) for Muslims, applied through Hanafi school.
  • Customary law for Hindus, managed by panchayats.
• Key Officials:
  • Qazi-ul-quzat: Chief judge, oversaw Sharia courts.
  • Muhtasib: Enforced moral laws (e.g., banned alcohol, gambling).
  • Kotwal: Urban police chief, maintained law and order in cities.
• Judiciary:
  • Sultan as highest appellate authority.
  • Provincial qadis and local panchayats handled disputes.
  • Punishments: Firozharsh (Sharia), e.g., mutilation; Alauddin pragmatic, used deterrence.
• Dynastic Variations:
  • Slave: Balban (1266–1287 CE) used sijda (prostration) to enforce discipline.
  • Khalji: Alauddin focused on secular punishments.
  • Tughlaq: Firoz enforced Sharia strictly, banned Hindu practices.
  • Lodi: Sikandar Lodi balanced Sharia with tribal customs.
• Bihar Connection:
  • Qadis in Bihar’s towns (e.g., Lakhnauti) applied Sharia.
  • Hindu panchayats continued in villages.
  • Sufi saints (e.g., Sharafuddin Maneri) mediated disputes informally.

Details to Memorize:

• System: Sharia (Hanafi), customary law.
• Officials: Qazi-ul-quzat, muhtasib, kotwal.
• Variations: Firoz (Sharia), Alauddin (pragmatic).
• Bihar: Qadis, panchayats, Sufi mediation.

---

6. Local Governance

• Village Level:
  • Panchayats: Village councils, largely Hindu, managed disputes, irrigation, and festivals.
  • Muqaddams and khuts: Liaised with state, collected taxes.
  • Retained autonomy under Sultanate, except during Alauddin’s direct revenue collection.
• Urban Governance:
  • Kotwal: Oversaw cities (e.g., Delhi, Lahore), regulated markets.
  • Shahna-i-mandi (Alauddin): Market inspector, enforced price controls.
• Dynastic Innovations:
  • Slave: Iltutmish supported panchayats.
  • Khalji: Alauddin curbed muqaddams’ power, centralized revenue.
  • Tughlaq: Firoz restored local elites, linked to iqtas.
  • Lodi: Sikandar empowered urban bazaars, balanced tribal and local systems.
• Bihar Connection:
  • Panchayats prevalent in Bihar’s villages, collecting kharaj.
  • Urban centers (e.g., Patna, Bihar Sharif) under kotwals, Sufi influence.

Details to Memorize:

• Village: Panchayats, muqaddams.
• Urban: Kotwal, shahna-i-mandi (Alauddin).
• Bihar: Panchayats, kotwals, Sufi role.

---

7. Special Administrative Features

• Market Control (Alauddin Khalji):
  • Fixed prices for essentials (grains, cloth, horses) to support army.
  • Established Sarai Adl (grain market), regulated by shahna-i-mandi.
  • Spies (barids) ensured compliance; granaries maintained supply.
• Welfare Measures (Firoz Shah Tughlaq):
  • Diwan-i-khairat: Charity for orphans, widows.
  • Dar-ul-shifa: Hospitals, free treatment.
  • Karkhanas: Workshops for employment.
  • Marriage bureau for poor Muslims.
• Irrigation:
  • Firoz Shah’s canals (Yamuna to Hissar, Sutlej to Punjab) boosted agriculture.
  • Haq-i-sharb (irrigation tax) collected.
• Currency:
  • Slave: Iltutmish introduced silver tanka, copper jital.
  • Khalji: Alauddin standardized coinage.
  • Tughlaq: Muhammad’s token currency (bronze, 1329–1332 CE) failed.
• Bihar Connection:
  • Market controls applied in Bihar’s towns (e.g., Lakhnauti).
  • Firoz’s welfare (e.g., madad-i-maash) supported Bihar’s Sufi institutions.
  • Canals likely extended to Bihar’s agrarian regions.

Details to Memorize:

• Market: Sarai Adl, shahna-i-mandi (Alauddin).
• Welfare: Diwan-i-khairat, dar-ul-shifa (Firoz).
• Irrigation: Canals, haq-i-sharb.
• Currency: Tanka, jital, token currency.
• Bihar: Market, welfare, canals.

---

8. Significance and Legacy

• Centralization:
  • Alauddin and Iltutmish strengthened monarchy, curbing feudalism.
  • Firoz’s hereditary iqtas weakened control, influencing Mughal jagirdari.
• Economic Stability:
  • Revenue reforms (Alauddin’s masahat, Firoz’s canals) boosted treasury.
  • Market controls set precedent for Mughal zabt system.
• Cultural Integration:
  • Inclusion of Hindus (panchayats, officials) and Sufi patronage fostered Hindu-Islamic synthesis.
  • Sharia and Persianate administration shaped Indo-Islamic governance.
• Bihar’s Role:
  • Integrated as iqta, Bihar contributed revenue (kharaj) and troops.
  • Sufi centers (e.g., Maner Sharif) and Jaunpur’s influence enriched Bihar’s culture.
  • Shift from Buddhist to Hindu-Islamic identity continued.
• Legacy:
  • Iqta evolved into Mughal mansabdari.
  • Administrative framework (diwans, revenue) influenced Sher Shah Suri and Mughals.
  • Delhi’s centrality persisted until Mughal era.

Details to Memorize:

• Significance: Centralization, economic reforms, cultural synthesis.
• Bihar: Iqta, Sufi, Jaunpur.
• Legacy: Mansabdari, Mughal continuity.

---

9. Key Memorization Points

• Central:
  • Sultan: Zill-i-Ilahi.
  • Diwans: Wizarat (wazir), arz, insha, risalat.
• Provincial:
  • Wilayats, shiqs, parganas.
  • Iqta: Iltutmish (formalized), Alauddin (audited), Firoz (hereditary).
• Revenue:
  • Kharaj (50% Alauddin), jizya (Firoz), zakat, khums.
  • Masahat, token currency, canals.
• Military:
  • Standing army, dagh, chehra (Alauddin).
  • Forts: Siri, Tughlaqabad.
• Judicial:
  • Sharia (Hanafi), qazi-ul-quzat, panchayats.
• Local:
  • Panchayats, muqaddams, kotwal.
  • Sarai Adl (Alauddin).
• Bihar:
  • Iqta (Lakhnauti), kharaj, Sufi (Maner Sharif), Jaunpur.

---

10. Practice Questions

• Prelims (MCQ):
  • Q: The iqta system was formalized by:
    A: Iltutmish.
  • Q: Alauddin Khalji’s market control was regulated by:
    A: Shahna-i-mandi.
  • Q: Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s charity department was:
    A: Diwan-i-khairat.
  • Q: The chief judge under Delhi Sultanate was:
    A: Qazi-ul-quzat.
• Mains:
  • Q: Discuss the administrative structure of the Delhi Sultanate, highlighting dynastic variations. (15 marks)
  • Q: Evaluate the revenue and military reforms of the Delhi Sultanate. (10 marks)
  • Q: Analyze the impact of Delhi Sultanate’s administration on Bihar’s governance and culture. (10 marks)

---

11. Recommended Resources

• NCERT: Themes in Indian History-II (Class 12), Chapter 5.
• NIOS: Indian Culture and Heritage (Code 223).
• IGNOU: EHI-03, India from 8th to 15th Century.
• Books:
  • A History of Medieval India by Satish Chandra.
  • The Delhi Sultanate by Peter Jackson.

---

12. Why This Topic Matters

• UPSC: Essential for Prelims (administration, reforms) and Mains (GS I: governance, Indo-Islamic culture).
• BPSC: Critical for Bihar’s integration into Sultanate (iqta, Sufism, Jaunpur).
• Memorization Value: Factual (diwans, iqta) and analytical (reforms, Bihar’s role) aspects suit both exams.

---