Overview
The Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646 CE), founded by Harihara I and Bukka I, was a prominent South Indian Hindu empire based in Hampi (Karnataka). Established to counter Islamic invasions (e.g., Delhi Sultanate, Bahmani Sultanate), it became a bastion of Hindu culture, economic prosperity, and Dravidian architecture. Known for its military strength, maritime trade, and patronage of art and literature, the empire reached its zenith under Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529 CE). Its decline followed the Battle of Talikota (1565 CE), though it lingered until the 17th century.

For UPSC, it is a core topic in Medieval Indian History (Prelims) and Indian Heritage and Culture (Mains GS Paper I).

For BPSC, its trade links with eastern India (e.g., Bengal, Odisha) and cultural influence (e.g., Bhakti, temple architecture) are relevant, though less directly tied to Bihar compared to northern dynasties.

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1. Historical Context

• Timeline: 1336–1646 CE.
• Founding:
  • Established in 1336 CE by brothers Harihara I and Bukka I, possibly under the guidance of sage Vidyaranya (Sringeri matha).
  • Aimed to resist Delhi Sultanate’s invasions (e.g., Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s campaigns) and protect Hindu traditions.
• Dynasties:
  • Sangama (1336–1485 CE): Harihara I, Bukka I, Devaraya II.
  • Saluva (1485–1505 CE): Narasimha Deva Raya.
  • Tuluva (1505–1570 CE): Krishnadevaraya, Achyuta Deva Raya.
  • Aravidu (1570–1646 CE): Post-Talikota, nominal rule.
• Capitals: Hampi (Vijayanagara), later Penukonda, Chandragiri.
• Geographical Extent: At its peak, covered Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, parts of Kerala; influenced Deccan and South India.
• Decline: Devastated after Battle of Talikota (1565 CE); survived as a weaker state until 1646 CE.
• Sources:
  • Chronicles: Amuktamalyada (Krishnadevaraya), Rayavachakamu.
  • Foreign Accounts: Domingo Paes, Nuniz (Portuguese), Abdur Razzaq (Persian), Nicolo Conti (Italian).
  • Inscriptions: Hampi, Vellore, Tirupati temple inscriptions.
  • Archaeological Sites: Hampi (UNESCO World Heritage), Vitthala Temple, Hazara Rama Temple.

Details to Memorize:

• Timeline: 1336–1646 CE.
• Founders: Harihara I, Bukka I (1336 CE).
• Dynasties: Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, Aravidu.
• Capital: Hampi.
• Decline: Talikota (1565 CE).
• Sources: Amuktamalyada, Paes, Razzaq, Hampi.

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2. Key Rulers and Achievements

• Harihara I (1336–1356 CE):
  • Founded empire with Bukka I, consolidated Karnataka.
  • Established control over Tungabhadra valley, resisted Hoysala decline.
  • Patronized Sringeri matha, laid foundation for Hindu revival.
• Bukka I (1356–1377 CE):
  • Expanded into Tamil Nadu, clashed with Bahmani Sultanate.
  • Patronized Telugu and Kannada literature, strengthened administration.
• Devaraya II (1424–1446 CE, Sangama):
  • Greatest Sangama ruler, titled Gajabetekara (Hunter of Elephants).
  • Conquests: Defeated Gajapati (Odisha), annexed Kondavidu (Andhra).
  • Strengthened navy, controlled ports (e.g., Mangalore, Bhatkal).
  • Patronized: Srinatha (Telugu poet), Dindima (Sanskrit).
  • Architecture: Vitthala Temple (Hampi), early fortification.
  • Foreign relations: Hosted Abdur Razzaq (Persian envoy, 1443 CE).
• Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529 CE, Tuluva):
  • Greatest Vijayanagara ruler, titled Andhra Bhoja, Kannada Rajya Rama Ramana.
  • Conquests:
    • Raichur Doab (1512 CE): Defeated Bahmani Sultan Adil Shah.
    • Odisha (1513–1519 CE): Captured Udayagiri, Kondavidu; married Gajapati princess.
    • Defeated Deccan Sultanates, restored Bahmani puppet.
  • Administration:
    • Centralized rule, efficient revenue system.
    • Appointed nayakas (local governors) under amara-nayaka system.
    • Built irrigation tanks, canals (e.g., Krishnasagara).
  • Cultural Patronage:
    • Wrote Amuktamalyada (Telugu poem on Andal).
    • Patronized Ashtadiggajas (eight Telugu poets, e.g., Allasani Peddana, Tenali Rama).
    • Promoted Kannada, Sanskrit, Tamil literature.
  • Architecture:
    • Expanded Vitthala Temple, Hazara Rama Temple (Hampi).
    • Built Krishnaswamy Temple, Vellore fort.
  • Foreign Relations: Allied with Portuguese for horses, firearms.
  • Legacy: Golden age of Vijayanagara, economic and cultural peak.
• Achyuta Deva Raya (1529–1542 CE):
  • Maintained empire, faced Bahmani and Gajapati threats.
  • Patronized Purandaradasa (Kannada saint-poet).
• Rama Raya (1542–1565 CE, Aravidu):
  • De facto ruler, interfered in Deccan Sultanates’ politics.
  • Battle of Talikota (1565 CE): Allied with Bijapur against Ahmadnagar, Golconda, Bidar; defeated, Hampi sacked.
  • Death: Beheaded, empire weakened.
• Later Rulers (Aravidu):
  • Tirumala, Venkatapati Raya II ruled from Penukonda, Chandragiri.
  • Resisted Mughal and Nayak encroachments; empire faded by 1646 CE.

Details to Memorize:

• Rulers: Harihara I, Bukka I, Devaraya II, Krishnadevaraya, Rama Raya.
• Conquests: Raichur (1512), Odisha (1513–1519), Talikota (1565).
• Patronage: Amuktamalyada, Ashtadiggajas, Vitthala Temple.
• Decline: Talikota (1565).

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3. Administration

• Monarchy:
  • Centralized, king as Rayas or Maharajadhiraja, advised by council (mantriparishad).
  • Divine kingship, linked to Virupaksha (Shiva) worship.
• Provincial Administration:
  • Divided into rajyas (provinces), nadus (districts), and sthalas (villages).
  • Governors: Royal kin or nayakas (military chiefs).
• Amara-Nayaka System:
  • Feudal-military system; nayakas governed provinces, maintained troops, paid tribute.
  • Land grants (amaram) for military service, similar to iqta but less centralized.
  • Krishnadevaraya refined; later nayakas (e.g., Madurai, Tanjore) became independent post-1565.
• Revenue System:
  • Taxes:
    • Land tax: ~1/6th to 1/3rd of produce, based on fertility.
    • Trade duties, irrigation cess, professional taxes.
  • Collection: By nayakas, village headmen (gaudas).
  • Grants: Devadana (temples), brahmadeya (Brahmins).
  • Irrigation: Tanks, canals (e.g., Krishnasagara) boosted agriculture.
• Military:
  • Strong army: Infantry, cavalry, elephants, artillery (Portuguese firearms).
  • Navy: Controlled west coast ports (Goa, Bhatkal), protected trade.
  • Forts: Hampi, Vellore, Chandragiri; massive stone walls.
• Judicial System:
  • Based on Dharmashastras and local customs.
  • King as highest judge; nayakas and sabhas (village councils) handled local disputes.
  • Temples as judicial centers (e.g., Tirupati).
• Local Governance:
  • Sabhas (Brahmin councils) and urs (non-Brahmin assemblies) managed villages.
  • Gaudas (headmen) liaised with state.
• Bihar Connection:
  • Trade with Bengal (via Gajapati Odisha) linked Vijayanagara to eastern India.
  • Nayakas in Odisha influenced Bihar’s coastal trade (e.g., textiles).

Details to Memorize:

• Monarchy: Rayas, mantriparishad.
• Provinces: Rajyas, nadus, sthalas.
• System: Amara-nayaka, sabhas.
• Revenue: Land tax, devadana, canals.
• Military: Navy, forts.
• Judiciary: Dharmashastras, temples.
• Bihar: Bengal trade.

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4. Economy and Trade

• Agriculture:
  • Fertile Tungabhadra, Krishna, Kaveri basins supported rice, sugarcane, cotton.
  • Irrigation: Tanks, canals, wells; Krishnadevaraya’s projects.
• Trade:
  • Maritime:
    • Ports: Mangalore, Bhatkal, Honavar (west), Masulipatnam (east).
    • Exports: Cotton textiles, spices (pepper), precious stones.
    • Imports: Horses (Arabia), firearms (Portuguese), silk (China).
    • Trade with: Persia, Arabia, Southeast Asia, Portugal, China.
  • Overland: Linked to Deccan (Bahmani), North India, Odisha.
  • Guilds: Ayyavole, Manigramam organized merchants.
  • Markets: Hampi’s bazaars, described by Paes as prosperous.
• Coinage:
  • Gold: Varaha (pagoda), gadyana.
  • Silver and copper: Pana, kasu.
  • High-quality minting, trusted in Indian Ocean trade.
• Bihar Connection:
  • Trade with Bengal (textiles, spices) via Odisha’s ports.
  • Vijayanagara’s conquests in Odisha (Krishnadevaraya) facilitated eastern trade routes.

Details to Memorize:

• Agriculture: Tungabhadra, canals.
• Ports: Mangalore, Masulipatnam.
• Trade: Textiles, horses, Ayyavole.
• Coins: Varaha, pana.
• Bihar: Bengal-Odisha trade.

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5. Art and Architecture

• Architecture:
  • Dravidian Style:
    • Features: Towering gopurams, vimanas (sanctum towers), mandapas (pillared halls).
    • Temples: Socio-economic hubs, managed land, festivals.
  • Key Monuments:
    • Vitthala Temple (Hampi): Musical pillars, stone chariot, Krishnadevaraya’s additions.
    • Hazara Rama Temple (Hampi): Ramayana reliefs, royal worship.
    • Virupaksha Temple (Hampi): Sangama patronage, tall gopuram.
    • Krishnaswamy Temple (Hampi): Tuluva period.
    • Vellore Fort: Military architecture, Jalakanteshwara Temple.
  • Secular:
    • Hampi’s palaces, aqueducts, Lotus Mahal (Indo-Islamic influence).
    • Fortifications: Multi-layered walls, bastions.
• Sculpture:
  • Stone carvings: Deities (Vishnu, Shiva), royal figures, Yalis (mythical beasts).
  • Monolithic pillars, chariots (Vitthala).
• Painting:
  • Frescoes in Virupaksha Temple: Mythological scenes, vibrant colors.
  • Lepakshi Temple (Andhra): Murals of Veerabhadra, Ramayana.
• Influence:
  • Built on Chola, Pandya, Hoysala traditions.
  • Inspired Nayaka (Madurai, Tanjore) and later South Indian styles.
• Bihar Connection:
  • Vijayanagara’s temple architecture influenced Odisha’s Gajapati temples, indirectly linked to Bihar via Bhakti art exchanges.

Details to Memorize:

• Style: Dravidian, gopurams, mandapas.
• Temples: Vitthala, Hazara Rama, Virupaksha.
• Secular: Hampi palaces, Vellore fort.
• Art: Sculptures, Lepakshi murals.
• Bihar: Odisha-Bhakti link.

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6. Society and Culture

• Social Structure:
  • Varna system: Brahmins (scholars, priests), Kshatriyas (nayakas, kings), Vaishyas (merchants), Shudras (artisans, farmers).
  • Women: High status for royalty (e.g., Krishnadevaraya’s queens), temple dancers (devadasis).
• Religion:
  • Hinduism dominant: Vaishnavism (Sri Vaishnava), Shaivism (Virupaksha).
  • Bhakti movement: Haridasas (Purandaradasa, Kanakadasa) composed devotional songs.
  • Jainism, Buddhism: Tolerated, minor presence.
  • Religious tolerance: Supported mosques for Muslim soldiers (Krishnadevaraya).
• Literature:
  • Telugu: Krishnadevaraya’s Amuktamalyada, Allasani Peddana’s Manucharitram.
  • Kannada: Kumara Vyasa’s Gadugina Bharata, Purandaradasa’s keertanas.
  • Sanskrit: Sayana’s Vedartha Prakasha (commentary on Vedas).
  • Tamil: Patronized Tirupati temple literature.
• Education:
  • Mathas (e.g., Sringeri) and temples as learning centers.
  • Taught Vedas, grammar, astronomy, philosophy.
• Performing Arts:
  • Music: Carnatic tradition, Purandaradasa’s compositions.
  • Dance: Bharatanatyam in temples, Yakshagana (Karnataka).
  • Festivals: Mahanavami (Hampi), described by Paes.
• Bihar Connection:
  • Bhakti parallels with Bihar’s saints (e.g., Chaitanya in Bengal-Odisha).
  • Trade with eastern India facilitated cultural exchanges (e.g., textiles, manuscripts).

Details to Memorize:

• Society: Varna, devadasis.
• Religion: Vaishnavism, Bhakti (Haridasas).
• Literature: Amuktamalyada, Gadugina Bharata.
• Arts: Carnatic, Bharatanatyam, Mahanavami.
• Bihar: Bhakti, trade exchanges.

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7. Significance and Legacy

• Political:
  • Checked Islamic expansion (Bahmani, Deccan Sultanates).
  • Amara-nayaka system influenced Nayaka kingdoms post-1565.
• Economic:
  • Maritime trade made Vijayanagara a global hub (Indian Ocean).
  • Irrigation and coinage boosted prosperity.
• Cultural:
  • Preserved Hindu traditions during Islamic rule in North India.
  • Dravidian architecture and Bhakti shaped South Indian identity.
  • Telugu, Kannada literature flourished.
• Bihar Connection:
  • Trade with Bengal-Odisha linked Vijayanagara to eastern India.
  • Bhakti exchanges influenced Bihar’s spiritual landscape (e.g., Chaitanya’s Vaishnavism).
• Legacy:
  • Hampi’s ruins (UNESCO) reflect grandeur.
  • Inspired Nayaka, Maratha, and later South Indian polities.
  • Cultural contributions persist in Carnatic music, temple architecture.

Details to Memorize:

• Significance: Hindu revival, trade, culture.
• Bihar: Bengal trade, Bhakti.
• Legacy: Hampi, Nayakas, Carnatic music.

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8. Key Memorization Points

• Timeline: 1336–1646 CE.
• Rulers: Harihara I, Bukka I, Devaraya II, Krishnadevaraya, Rama Raya.
• Administration: Amara-nayaka, sabhas, devadana.
• Economy: Ports (Mangalore), varaha, trade with Portuguese.
• Architecture: Vitthala, Hazara Rama, Dravidian gopurams.
• Culture: Amuktamalyada, Ashtadiggajas, Bhakti (Purandaradasa).
• Decline: Talikota (1565 CE).
• Bihar: Bengal-Odisha trade, Bhakti links.

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9. Practice Questions

• Prelims (MCQ):
  • Q: The Vijayanagara Empire was founded by:
    A: Harihara I and Bukka I.
  • Q: Krishnadevaraya wrote:
    A: Amuktamalyada.
  • Q: The Battle of Talikota was fought in:
    A: 1565 CE.
  • Q: Hampi’s Vitthala Temple is associated with:
    A: Vijayanagara Empire.
• Mains:
  • Q: Discuss the administrative and economic structure of the Vijayanagara Empire. (15 marks)
  • Q: Evaluate the cultural contributions of the Vijayanagara Empire under Krishnadevaraya. (10 marks)
  • Q: Analyze the Vijayanagara Empire’s trade and cultural links with eastern India, including Bihar. (10 marks)

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10. Recommended Resources

• NCERT:
  • Themes in Indian History-II (12th): Chapter 14.
  • Download: ncert.nic.in.
• NIOS:
  • Indian Culture and Heritage (Code 223): Medieval India.
  • Download: nios.ac.in.
• IGNOU:
  • EHI-03: India from 8th to 15th Century.
  • Download: egyankosh.ac.in.
• Books:
  • A History of South India by K.A. Nilakanta Sastri.
  • The Vijayanagara Empire by Robert Sewell.
  • South India Under Vijayanagara by A. Krishnaswami.

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11. Why This Topic Matters

• UPSC: Essential for Prelims (rulers, architecture, trade) and Mains (GS I: governance, culture, maritime history).
• BPSC: Relevant for trade with eastern India and Bhakti influences in Bihar.
• Memorization Value: Factual (rulers, temples) and analytical (administration, culture) aspects suit both exams.

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