CrackTarget

South Indian Kingdoms Governance: Cholas, Cheras,and Pandyas

18,880 views

Overview
The Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas, collectively known as the mudi-vendar (crowned kings) of South India, were prominent Tamil dynasties that shaped the political, economic, and cultural landscape of the region from the Sangam period (3rd century BCE–3rd century CE) to the medieval era (13th–16th century CE). Centered in Tamil Nadu and Kerala, these kingdoms excelled in maritime trade, Dravidian architecture, and Tamil literature, with significant contributions to governance systems that balanced centralized monarchy with local autonomy. The Cholas were known for their naval prowess and temple architecture, the Cheras for Roman trade and Bhakti literature, and the Pandyas for pearl fisheries and Madurai’s cultural prominence. For UPSC, this is a core topic in Ancient and Medieval Indian History (Prelims) and Indian Heritage and Culture (Mains GS Paper I). For BPSC, their trade links with eastern India (e.g., Bengal, Bihar) and influence on South Indian culture are relevant, though less directly tied to Bihar compared to dynasties like the Guptas or Palas.

1. Historical Context

  • Timeline:
    • Sangam Period: ~3rd century BCE–3rd century CE (Early Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas).
    • Post-Sangam/First Empires: ~6th–10th century CE (revival under Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas).
    • Medieval Period: ~9th–13th century CE (Chola peak, Medieval Pandyas, Later Cheras).
    • Decline: ~13th–16th century CE (Vijayanagara, Nayaks, and regional powers).
  • Geographical Extent:
    • Cholas: Kaveri delta (Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram), Tamil Nadu, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia (influence).
    • Cheras: Malabar Coast (Kerala), western Tamil Nadu (Vanchi, Kodungallur).
    • Pandyas: Southern Tamil Nadu (Madurai, Tenkaasi), parts of Kerala, Sri Lanka.
  • Sources:
    • Sangam Literature: Purananuru, Akananuru, Pathirrupattu (Cheras), Maduraikkanji (Pandyas), Pattinappalai (Cholas).
    • Inscriptions: Uttaramerur (Chola governance), Velvikudi (Pandya), Vazhapalli (Chera), Thanjavur (Chola).
    • Foreign Accounts: Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE), Ptolemy, Marco Polo (Pandyas), Chinese chronicles (Chola trade).
    • Archaeological Sites: Thanjavur, Madurai, Pattanam (Muziris), Korkai, Keezhadi.

Details to Memorize:

  • Timeline: Sangam (3rd century BCE–3rd century CE), Medieval (9th–13th century CE).
  • Regions: Cholas (Kaveri), Cheras (Malabar), Pandyas (Madurai).
  • Sources: Sangam texts, inscriptions (Uttaramerur, Velvikudi), Periplus, Pattanam.

2. Cholas: Overview and Governance

  • Historical Context:
    • Timeline: Early Cholas (Sangam, 3rd century BCE–3rd century CE); Medieval Cholas (850–1279 CE).
    • Key Rulers:
      • Vijayalaya (~850 CE): Founded Medieval Cholas, captured Thanjavur.
      • Rajaraja I (~985–1014 CE): Built Brihadeeswarar Temple, conquered Sri Lanka.
      • Rajendra I (~1014–1044 CE): Naval expeditions to Srivijaya (1025 CE), Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
      • Kulothunga I (~1070–1122 CE): Consolidated trade with China.
    • Capitals: Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
    • Decline: ~1279 CE, Pandya and Hoysala invasions.
  • Governance:
    • Monarchy: Centralized, king as Chakravartin or Ko-Raja-Kesari. Advised by perundanam (senior officials) and sirudanam (juniors).
    • Provincial Administration:
      • Divided into mandalams (provinces), valanadus (districts), nadus (sub-districts), and urs (villages).
      • Governed by viceroys (royal kin) or nadu-vagai (officials).
    • Local Governance:
      • Uttaramerur Inscription: Details democratic village assemblies (sabhas for Brahmin villages, urs for others).
      • Elected via kudavolai (lottery system); committees (variyams) for irrigation, temples, justice.
      • Eligibility: Property ownership, age 35–70, Vedic knowledge.
    • Revenue:
      • Taxes: kadamai (land tax, ~1/3rd–1/6th), trade duties, professional taxes.
      • Land grants: brahmadeya (Brahmins), devadana (temples).
      • Officials: kanakkars (accountants), puravuvari (surveyors).
    • Military:
      • Strong army (infantry, cavalry, elephants) and navy (conquered Sri Lanka, Srivijaya).
      • Elite troops: Kaikkolars; commanders: senaithalaivar.
    • Judiciary:
      • King and dharmasana (judicial council) for major cases.
      • Sabhas and temples handled local disputes, based on Dharmashastras.

Details to Memorize:

  • Rulers: Vijayalaya (850 CE), Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE), Rajendra I (~1014–1044 CE).
  • Governance: Chakravartin, mandalams, sabhas, kudavolai (Uttaramerur).
  • Revenue: Kadamai, brahmadeya.
  • Military: Navy, Srivijaya (1025 CE).

3. Cheras: Overview and Governance

  • Historical Context:
    • Timeline: Early Cheras (Sangam, ~3rd century BCE–3rd century CE); Later Cheras (Perumals, ~8th–12th century CE).
    • Key Rulers:
      • **Early: Udayanjeral (~1st century CE): Fed armies (Sangamagam texts).
      • Nendum Cheralathan: Defeated Yavanas, titled Adhiraja.
      • Senguttuvan (~2nd century CE): Northern expedition (Silappadikaram).
      • Kulasekhara Alwar (~9th century CE): Bhakti saint, founded Later Cheras.
    • Capitals: Vanchi (Karur/Kodungallur), Mahodayapuramapuram (Kodungallur), Kollam.
    • Decline: Early Cheras (3rd century CE, Chola-Pandya dominance); Later Cheras (12th century CE, Chola invasions).
  • Governance:
    • Early Cheras:
      • Monarchy: Tribal kings (Perumal), supported by velirs (chiefs).
      • Local: manrams (village assemblies) managed irrigation, disputes.
      • Revenue: karai (land tax), sungam (trade duties), plunder.
      • Military: Naval-focused, protected coastal trade routes.
    • Judiciary: Chiefs and manrams, based on Tamil customs.
    • Later Cheras:
      • Monarchy: Centralized Perumal, divine kingship, advised by naluthali (Brahmin council, Vazhapalli plates).
      • Provinces: nadus, governed by naduvazhis (chiefs).
      • Local: sabhas (Brahmin councils) and urs (village assemblies) for land, temples.
      • Revenue: puravuari (land tax), trade duties, brahmadeya, devadana.
      • Military: Navy, chaver (elite warriors).
      • Judiciary: Dharmashastras, sabhas, Jewish copper plates show inclusive governance.

Details to Memorize:

  • Rulers: Senguttuvan (Silappadikaram), Kulasekhara Alwar (~9th century CE).
  • Governance: Perumal, manrams (Early), sabhas, naluthali (Later, Vazhapalli).
  • Revenue: Karai, puravuari.
  • Military: Navy, Muziris trade protection.

4. Pandyas: Overview and Governance

  • Historical Context:
    • Timeline: Early Sangam (3rd century BCE–3rd century CE); First Empire (6th–10th century CE); Medieval (~13th–14th century CE).
    • Key Rulers:
      • Nedunjeliyan I (~2nd century BCE): Won Talaiyalanganam (Maduraikkanji).
      • Kadungon (~6th century CE): Revived Pandyas post-Kalabhra.
      • Jatavarman Sundara Pandya (~1251–1268 CE): Defeated Cholas, enriched Meenakshi Temple.
    • Capitals: Madurai, Tenkaasi, Korkai (port).
    • Decline: ~16th century CE, Vijayanagara, Nayaks.
  • Governance:
    • Monarchy: King (Maran), fish emblem, advised by ainperumkuzhu (ministers, Sangam period).
    • Provinces: mandalams, valanadus, nadus, governed by arasus or samantas.
    • Local:
      • Sangam: manrams for irrigation, disputes.
      • Medieval: sabhas (Brahmin), urs (non-Brahmin), per Velvikudi inscription.
    • Revenue:
      • Taxes: karam (land), sungam (trade), pearl fisheries.
      • Grants: brahmadeya, devadana.
      • Officials: kanakkars, adhikaris.
    • Military: Army (infantry, elephants), navy for Sri Lanka campaigns (1258 CE).
    • Judiciary: Dharmashastras, sabhas, temple courts.

Details to Memorize:

  • Rulers: Nedunjeliyan I, Jatavarman Sundara Pandya (~1251–1268 CE).
  • Governance: Maran, manrams, sabhas (Velvikudi).
  • Revenue: Karam, pearl fisheries.
  • Military: Navy, Sri Lanka (1258 CE).

5. Comparative Governance Features

AspectCholasCherasPandyas
MonarchyChakravartin, perundanam councilPerumal, tribal (Early), naluthali (Later)Maran, ainperumkuzhu (Sangam)
ProvincesMandalams, valanadus, nadusNadus, naduvazhis (Later)Mandalams, valanadus, nadus
Local GovernanceSabhas, kudavolai (Uttaramerur)Manrams (Early), sabhas (Later)Manrams (Sangam), sabhas (Velvikudi)
RevenueKadamai, brahmadeya, devadanaKarai, puravuari, devadanaKaram, brahmadeya, pearl fisheries
MilitaryStrong navy, Srivijaya (1025 CE)Naval trade protection, chaverNavy, Sri Lanka (1258 CE)
JudiciaryDharmasana, sabhas, templesManrams (Early), sabhas (Later)Dharmashastras, sabhas, temples

Key Observations:

  • Cholas: Most centralized, with sophisticated local democracy (kudavolai).
  • Cheras: Tribal in Sangam period, centralized under Later Perumals; inclusive (Jewish plates).
  • Pandyas: Similar to Cholas but less documented; pearl fisheries unique revenue source.

Details to Memorize:

  • Cholas: Kudavolai, Uttaramerur.
  • Cheras: Manrams, Vazhapalli plates.
  • Pandyas: Manrams, Velvikudi, pearl fisheries.

6. Economic and Cultural Context (Supporting Governance)

  • Economy:
    • Cholas: Kaveri delta agriculture (Kallanai dam), maritime trade with China, Srivijaya (ports: Nagapattinam, Puhar).
    • Cheras: Periyar river agriculture, Roman trade via Muziris (Pattanam), Chinese trade (Kodungallur).
    • Pandyas: Vaigai-Tamraparni agriculture, pearl fisheries, Roman/Chinese trade (ports: Korkai, Kayal).
    • Common Features: Guilds (manigramam, ainurruvar), gold coins (kasu), irrigation tanks (eris).
    • Bihar Link: Trade with Palas (Bengal) via Chola campaigns (Rajendra I, 1019 CE) and Pandya ports.
  • Culture:
    • Religion: Shaivism (Nayanars), Vaishnavism (Alvars), Bhakti movement; Jainism/Buddhism tolerated.
    • Literature: Sangam texts (Purananuru, Pathirrupattu, Maduraikkanji), Tirukkural (Pandyas), Silappadikaram (Cheras).
    • Art/Architecture:
      • Cholas: Brihadeeswarar Temple (Thanjavur), Chola bronzes.
      • Cheras: Thrikodithanam Temple, megaliths (Edakkal).
      • Pandyas: Meenakshi Temple (Madurai), Srivilliputhur gopuram.

Details to Memorize:

  • Economy: Cholas (Nagapattinam), Cheras (Muziris), Pandyas (Korkai, pearls).
  • Culture: Bhakti (Nayanars, Alvars), Sangam texts.
  • Bihar Link: Pala trade (1019 CE).

7. Legacy and Significance

  • Governance Legacy:
    • Cholas: Sabhas and kudavolai influenced South Indian village democracy (e.g., Vijayanagara).
    • Cheras: Local autonomy (manrams) shaped Kerala’s decentralized governance.
    • Pandyas: Manrams and temple-based administration adopted by Nayaks.
  • Economic Impact:
    • Maritime trade (Muziris, Korkai, Nagapattinam) made South India a global hub.
    • Chola naval expeditions (Srivijaya) and Pandya pearl fisheries set economic benchmarks.
  • Cultural Influence:
    • Sangam literature and Bhakti movement enriched Tamil identity.
    • Dravidian architecture (Chola temples, Pandya gopurams) inspired Vijayanagara and beyond.
  • Bihar Connection:
    • Trade with Palas (Bengal) linked South India to eastern India, influencing Buddhist and Bhakti exchanges.
    • Chola campaign to Ganges (1019 CE) facilitated cultural contact with Bihar.

Details to Memorize:

  • Legacy: Sabhas, maritime trade, Dravidian temples.
  • Bihar: Pala trade, Ganges campaign (1019 CE).

8. Key Memorization Points

  • Cholas:
    • Rulers: Rajaraja I, Rajendra I, Kulothunga I.
    • Governance: Kudavolai, sabhas (Uttaramerur), mandalams.
    • Military: Srivijaya (1025 CE).
  • Cheras:
    • Rulers: Senguttuvan, Kulasekhara Alwar.
    • Governance: Manrams (Early), sabhas, naluthali (Vazhapalli).
    • Trade: Muziris, Roman coins.
  • Pandyas:
    • Rulers: Nedunjeliyan I, Jatavarman Sundara Pandya.
    • Governance: Manrams, sabhas (Velvikudi), pearl fisheries.
    • Trade: Korkai, Kayal.
  • Common:
    • Economy: Maritime trade, kasu coins, guilds.
    • Culture: Sangam texts, Bhakti, Dravidian art.
    • Bihar Link: Pala trade, Chola campaign (1019 CE).

9. Practice Questions for Retention

  • Prelims (MCQ):
    • Q: The Uttaramerur inscription is associated with:
      A: Cholas.
    • Q: The Chera port famous for Roman trade was:
      A: Muziris.
    • Q: Jatavarman Sundara Pandya is known for:
      A: Defeating Cholas.
    • Q: The Velvikudi inscription describes:
      A: Pandya governance.
  • Mains:
    • Q: Compare the administrative systems of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas. (15 marks)
    • Q: Discuss the role of local governance in the South Indian kingdoms. (10 marks)
    • Q: Analyze the economic and cultural contributions of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas to South India. (15 marks)
    • Q: Evaluate the South Indian kingdoms’ trade links with eastern India, including Bihar. (10 marks)

10. Recommended Resources

  • NCERT:
    • Themes in Indian History-I (Class 11): Chapter 2, South Indian kingdoms.
    • Download: ncert.nic.in.
  • NIOS:
    • Indian Culture and Heritage (Code 223): Sangam period.
    • Download: nios.ac.in.
  • IGNOU:
    • EHI-03: Medieval India, South Indian states.
    • Download: egyankosh.ac.in.
  • Books:
    • A History of South India by K.A. Nilakanta Sastri.
    • The Cholas by K.S. Ramachandran.
    • South Indian History and Culture by Noboru Karashima.

11. Why This Topic Matters

  • UPSC: Essential for Prelims (rulers, inscriptions, trade) and Mains (GS I: governance, culture, maritime history).
  • BPSC: Relevant for trade with eastern India (Palas) and South Indian cultural context.
  • Memorization Value: Factual (governance, rulers) and analytical (local autonomy, trade) aspects suit both exams.

Discover more from CrackTarget

Subscribe to get the latest posts sent to your email.

Comments

Leave a comment

Discover more from CrackTarget

Subscribe now to keep reading and get access to the full archive.

Continue reading