1. Introduction to Peshwa Rule and the Maratha Empire

The Peshwa Rule (1713–1818 CE) represents the zenith of the Maratha Empire, transforming it from a regional power founded by Shivaji into a confederacy dominating much of India in the 18th century. The Peshwas, originally prime ministers in Shivaji’s administration, became hereditary rulers under Balaji Vishwanath, effectively shifting power from the Chhatrapati to the Peshwa office. Their rule, centered in Pune, is marked by territorial expansion, administrative reforms, and conflicts with the Mughals, Afghans, and later the British. The Peshwas’ governance blended Maratha martial traditions with sophisticated diplomacy and bureaucracy, but internal divisions and British intervention led to its decline by 1818.

For the Peshwa period, literary sources like Bakhars, Mughal chronicles, and European accounts provide detailed narratives, while archaeological evidence, including forts, inscriptions, and artifacts, offers insights into material culture. Integrating both is crucial, as literary sources may reflect regional or colonial biases, and archaeological evidence focuses on cultural processes rather than specific events.

2. Chronology and Key Events

The Peshwa Rule is divided into key phases under prominent Peshwas, marked by expansion, consolidation, and eventual decline.

• Balaji Vishwanath (1713–1720 CE):
  • Appointed Peshwa by Chhatrapati Shahu, revitalizing Maratha power post-Aurangzeb (1707).
  • Secured Mughal sanads (1719) granting Marathas the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi in Deccan provinces, formalizing revenue collection.
  • Strengthened Maratha confederacy by aligning with regional leaders like the Holkars and Scindias.
• Bajirao I (1720–1740 CE):
  • Expanded Maratha influence into northern India, defeating Mughals in Battle of Bhopal (1737) and capturing Delhi (1737).
  • Consolidated Deccan control, defeating Nizam-ul-Mulk at Battle of Palkhed (1728).
  • Established Maratha dominance in Malwa and Gujarat, laying the foundation for the confederacy.
• Balaji Bajirao (1740–1761 CE):
  • Expanded Maratha power to its peak, controlling regions from Gujarat to Bengal.
  • Third Battle of Panipat (1761): Maratha defeat against Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened the empire, marking a turning point.
  • Strengthened administration in Pune, but internal rivalries emerged.
• Later Peshwas (1761–1818 CE):
  • Madhavrao I (1761–1772): Restored Maratha power post-Panipat through reforms and campaigns against the Nizam and Mysore.
  • Narayanrao (1772–1773): Short reign marred by internal conflicts, assassinated in a palace conspiracy.
  • Bajirao II (1796–1818): Weak leadership led to reliance on British support, culminating in the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818) and Maratha defeat, ending Peshwa rule.

The text highlights that literary sources provide event-based history, while archaeology reveals cultural processes. Bakhars and European accounts detail Peshwa campaigns, while forts and inscriptions corroborate their territorial and administrative reach.

3. Archaeological Sources for Peshwa Rule

Archaeological evidence, including forts, inscriptions, and artifacts, provides insights into the Peshwas’ military, administrative, and cultural achievements. The text classifies these as structures, inscriptions, and artifacts, emphasizing their role in understanding socio-cultural contexts.

Key Archaeological Findings:

• Structures:
  • Shaniwar Wada (Pune, 1732): The Peshwa palace, built by Bajirao I, served as the administrative and cultural center, reflecting Maratha opulence.
  • Forts: Forts like Sinhagad, Purandar, and Shrivardhan were renovated or expanded, showcasing military strength. New forts in Malwa and Gujarat (e.g., Gwalior under Scindia) indicate territorial expansion.
  • Temples and Ghats: The Peshwas patronized Hindu temples (e.g., Parvati Temple, Pune) and riverfront ghats, reflecting cultural revival.
  • The text notes that monuments provide reliable socio-cultural information, evident in Shaniwar Wada’s blend of Maratha and Mughal architectural styles.
• Artifacts:
  • Coins: Maratha hons and shivarais continued under Peshwas, with inscriptions of Chhatrapati and Peshwa titles, indicating economic autonomy. The text classifies coins as durable economic indicators.
  • Weapons: Excavations at Panipat and Deccan forts reveal muskets, cannons, and swords, reflecting advanced military technology.
  • Manuscripts and Seals: Administrative records and copper plates document revenue collection (chauth, sardeshmukhi) and land grants.
• Inscriptions:
  • Inscriptions at Shaniwar Wada and temples proclaim Peshwa titles and patronage, aligning with the text’s classification of inscriptions as socio-cultural sources.
  • Revenue grants on copper plates detail chauth collection rights, corroborating Mughal sanads.
• Significance of Archaeological Sources:
  • The text emphasizes archaeology’s role in reconstructing man-land relationships. Forts and temples reflect the Peshwas’ strategic and cultural priorities.
  • Scientific techniques like GIS mapping (noted in the text) help map Maratha fort networks, confirming their territorial control. Recent ASI surveys (2024) at Shaniwar Wada uncovered administrative quarters, supporting literary accounts.

4. Literary Sources and Their Limitations

The Peshwa period is documented through Maratha chronicles, European accounts, and Mughal records. The text divides literary sources into religious and secular, cautioning against biases due to regional loyalties, colonial perspectives, or oral transmission.

Key Literary Sources:

• Maratha Chronicles (Bakhars):
  • Texts like Bajirao Bakhar and Panipat Bakhar detail Peshwa campaigns, administration, and internal politics.
  • The text praises regional chronicles for event-based history but notes their bias toward glorifying Maratha leaders.
• European Accounts:
  • British (e.g., East India Company records), French, and Portuguese accounts describe Maratha campaigns, trade, and conflicts, particularly under Bajirao II.
  • The text cautions that foreign accounts may misinterpret Maratha motives or exaggerate their aggression due to colonial interests.
• Mughal Chronicles:
  • Maasir-i-Alamgiri and later Mughal records portray Marathas as rebels, detailing conflicts like Palkhed and Bhopal.
  • These sources are biased against the Marathas, requiring corroboration.
• Administrative Documents:
  • Peshwa daftar (records) detail revenue collection (chauth, sardeshmukhi), military assignments, and diplomatic correspondence.
  • The text notes such documents as valuable for administrative insights.
• Religious Texts:
  • Texts like Shivapurana and temple records emphasize the Peshwas’ patronage of Hinduism, aligning with their role as protectors of Haindava Dharma.

Limitations:

• Bias in Bakhars: The text warns that regional chronicles idealize rulers. Bakhars glorify Peshwas, often downplaying defeats like Panipat.
• Oral Transmission: Early Bakhars were orally transmitted, risking distortion, as noted in the text’s caution about Shruti traditions.
• Foreign Bias: European accounts, especially British, may portray Marathas as obstacles to colonial expansion, skewing narratives.
• Mughal Bias: Mughal chronicles depict Marathas negatively, necessitating archaeological validation.

5. Socio-Economic and Cultural Features

The Peshwa Rule is characterized by territorial expansion, administrative sophistication, and cultural patronage, as reconstructed from archaeological and literary sources. The text emphasizes archaeology’s role in revealing lifestyles and literary sources’ contribution to event-based history.

Social Organization:

• Stratification: The Peshwas centralized power, with mansabdars (military officials) and regional leaders (e.g., Holkars, Scindias) forming the confederacy. Local deshmukhs and patils were integrated into administration.
• Inclusive Governance: The Peshwas appointed officials from diverse communities, continuing Shivaji’s merit-based system, though factionalism grew post-Panipat.
• The text notes that archaeology reveals social life, evident in fort-based communities and temple patronage.

Economy:

• Agriculture: The Peshwas collected chauth (1/4th of revenue) and sardeshmukhi (1/10th additional tax) from Mughal territories, as per 1719 sanads. Taxes were lighter in Maratha-controlled areas to ensure peasant loyalty, as noted in Bakhars.
• Trade: Control over western ports (e.g., Vasai, Bombay) facilitated trade with Europeans and Arabs. Coins and port artifacts confirm economic activity.
• Raids: Plundering Mughal territories supplemented revenue, as documented in European accounts.
• The text highlights commercial inscriptions (e.g., on coins) as economic indicators, relevant to Peshwa fiscal policies.

Religion and Culture:

• Religious Policy: The Peshwas promoted Haindava Dharma, patronizing temples (e.g., Parvati Temple) and Brahmin scholars, reinforcing Hindu identity against Mughal orthodoxy.
• Cultural Patronage: Supported Marathi literature, festivals, and architecture. Shaniwar Wada’s design reflects Maratha-Mughal synthesis.
• The text classifies religious artifacts (e.g., temple grants) as didactic, evident in Peshwa support for Hindu institutions.

Technology:

• Military Technology: The Peshwas adopted Mughal artillery and cavalry tactics, as seen in Panipat. Excavations reveal muskets and cannons.
• Architecture: Fort renovations and palace construction (e.g., Shaniwar Wada) used advanced masonry, blending Maratha and Mughal styles.
• The text highlights archaeology’s role in understanding technology, evident in fort designs and urban planning.

6. Decline and Legacy of Peshwa Rule

The Peshwa Rule ended with the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818). The text notes that archaeology informs about cultural shifts, while literary sources detail events.

Factors of Decline:

• Third Battle of Panipat (1761): The Maratha defeat weakened military and financial strength, fostering factionalism.
• Internal Divisions: Rivalries among Maratha leaders (e.g., Holkars vs. Scindias) eroded unity, as noted in Bakhars.
• British Intervention: The East India Company exploited divisions, defeating Bajirao II in 1818.
• Archaeological Evidence: Damaged forts (e.g., Raigad) and reduced coin minting post-1761 reflect decline.

Legacy:

• Maratha Confederacy: The Peshwas’ decentralized model influenced regional powers in the 18th century.
• Cultural Revival: Their patronage of Hinduism and Marathi culture left a lasting regional identity.
• Resistance to Colonialism: Maratha wars delayed British dominance, shaping early resistance movements.

7. Integration of Literary and Archaeological Sources

The text stresses corroborating literary and archaeological evidence for a holistic historical reconstruction. For the Peshwa Rule:

• Literary Dominance: Bakhars and European accounts provide detailed event-based history, covering campaigns and governance.
• Archaeological Support: Shaniwar Wada, forts, and inscriptions corroborate literary descriptions of Peshwa administration and territorial control.
• Challenges: The text notes the difficulty of integrating biased literary sources with anonymous archaeological data. Bakhars’ glorification requires validation from inscriptions and fort remains.
• Complementary Insights: Literary sources detail events (e.g., battles, chauth agreements), while archaeology reveals cultural processes (e.g., architecture, trade).

8. Relevance for Competitive Exams

The Peshwa Rule is a high-weightage topic in UPSC, BPSC, and other competitive exams, appearing in Prelims (factual recall) and Mains (analytical depth). Focus areas include:

• Key Peshwas: Balaji Vishwanath, Bajirao I, Balaji Bajirao, Madhavrao I, Bajirao II.
• Battles: Palkhed (1728), Bhopal (1737), Panipat (1761), Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818).
• Administration: Chauth, sardeshmukhi, confederacy structure.
• Literary Sources: Bajirao Bakhar, Panipat Bakhar, European accounts.
• Archaeological Evidence: Shaniwar Wada, forts, coins, inscriptions.
• Decline: Panipat, internal divisions, British intervention.
  The text’s emphasis on critical source analysis aligns with Mains’ requirements for evaluating historical evidence. For Prelims, memorize key events, figures, and sites.

9. Recent Developments (as of June 7, 2025)

• Shaniwar Wada Excavations: ASI surveys (2024) uncovered administrative and residential structures, confirming its role as the Peshwa capital.
• Panipat Battlefield Studies: Recent archaeological work (2023–24) revealed weapon fragments, supporting accounts of the 1761 battle.
• Digital Archiving: Digitized Bakhars and Peshwa daftar records enhance research access, aligning with the text’s emphasis on scientific techniques.

10. Conclusion

The Peshwa Rule (1713–1818 CE) elevated the Maratha Empire to its peak through territorial expansion, administrative reforms, and cultural patronage, but internal divisions and British intervention led to its downfall. Literary sources like Bakhars and European accounts provide detailed event-based history, while archaeological evidence (Shaniwar Wada, forts, coins) reveals military and cultural contexts. The text’s advocacy for corroborating both sources is critical, given the biases in Bakhars and the anonymous nature of archaeology. For competitive exams, mastering the Peshwas’ campaigns, governance, and recent findings is essential for factual recall and analytical depth.

Key Points for Quick Revision

• Period: 1713–1818 CE; Maratha Empire’s peak and decline.
• Key Peshwas: Balaji Vishwanath, Bajirao I, Balaji Bajirao, Madhavrao I, Bajirao II.
• Battles: Palkhed (1728), Bhopal (1737), Panipat (1761), Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818).
• Administration: Chauth, sardeshmukhi, confederacy with Holkars, Scindias.
• Literary Sources: Bajirao Bakhar, Panipat Bakhar, European accounts, Mughal chronicles.
• Archaeological Evidence: Shaniwar Wada, forts, coins, inscriptions.
• Decline: Panipat, internal rivalries, British conquest.
• Legacy: Hindu revival, regional identity, resistance to colonialism.
• Exam Tips: Focus on battles, administration, sources, decline, and recent findings.